Carved Column Capitals in the Cloister of Monreale Cathedral near Palermo in Sicily, 1174 to 1182 AD

Click on a figure to see the source capital.

Referenced on p.259, Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350, Western Europe and the Crusader States by David Nicolle, 1999.
690A-AU Carved capitals, Sicily, late 12th century
(in situ cloisters of Cathedral, Monreale, Italy)
The costumes, arms and armour portrayed on the Monreale cloister capitals are remarkably varied, ranging from virtually naked infantry to fully-armoured horsemen. The subjects appear to be drawn from various traditions, including Western European, Byzantine and Mediterranean Islamic, which in turn probably reflected the very mixed armies of Norman Sicily and southern Italy. Helmets and headgear include the kind of pointed coif, hood or cap seen in other south Italian sources (H and I), a possible cap or helmet (Q) that might have parallels in Spain, a probable loose turban (R and AR-AT) and a turban wound around a helmet (AD). A rounded helmet with a crest and possible neck extension (Y) could reflect a ceremonial Byzantine type or simply echo a barely understood Roman original. Other helmets are more straightforward. These include a conical form with a forward-angled crown and a face-mask (X), a similar style without a face-mask (AF), a simple conical helmet with a decorative rim (AB), a slightly conical form with an apparent comb or crest up the front (AI), and round helmets of apparent two-piece (AE) or fluted (AD) construction. Several helmets have single or doubled chin-straps (X, Y, AF and AI). Mail coifs are only seen as part of hauberks (AF and AI), these hauberks themselves being short-sleeved and thigh-length (AD, AF and AK). A lamellar or scale hauberk of probable Byzantine or Islamic inspiration is worn by one of two sleeping Guards at the Holy Sepulchre (AE). Sleeveless and much shorter scale or lamellar cuirasses of similarly Byzantine or Islamic origin are quite common, though almost invariably worn by 'infidel' or 'wicked' figures (R and AR-AU). The only possible exception to this is a horse-archer (AJ) who might represent a warrior-saint. Shields are shown in considerable detail and variety, including small round types (G, T, V AL and AN), most of which are held by men whose other attributes suggest North African or Islamic origins. A larger round shield is also held by a Guard at the Holy Sepulchre (AD). Other shields are kite-shaped, some round-topped and plain (J, AF and AH), some round-topped but with bosses or strengthening straps across the front (H, I, X, AC, AI, AK and AM), others kite-shaped but virtually flat-topped (Q, AB and AG). A final and most interesting shield (Y) almost has a vertical 'keel' and an indented top, recalling the later leather adargas of Iberia which were themselves of North African origin. Another and even closer parallel is to be found in a carved capital from Crusader Nazareth. Weapons are varied, including a short, very broad-bladed spear (B) as well as more ordinary spears (D, K, AM and AP). Bows are mostly in the traditional pre-Turkish Mediterranean form with angled ears (A, O and AJ) although a simple, regularly curved bow is also shown (AA). A simple quiver is fastened to one man's belt (Z). Axes with curved blades (P and S), a complicated mace (C) and simple club-like weapons (F, V, W and AQ) are all seen. Another mace may also be carried on his right arm by the horse-archer (AJ). Swords are the most varied of all, most being of a non-tapering or very slightly tapering form (E, H-J, Q, R, U, AC, AE, AG, AR, AT and AU). Some of these have rounded tips, others have points. Weapons with almost triangular blades (X, Y and AB) are unlike any other 12th-century European swords but may be the originals from which the later Italian triangular-bladed cinquedea developed. The swords have round (H, I, U, Y, AK and AT), oval (AE), or tear-drop-shaped (X, AB, AR and AU) pommels. Others appear to have straight, curved or angled and apparently flared hilts without pommels (E and L). This would indicate similarities with some Middle Eastern, Central Asian or perhaps Byzantine weapons. Quillons are straight (J, L, R, X, AB and AE), curved (U, Y and AG), peculiarly reverse-curved (E, H and I), apparently flared (AR and AU) or down-turned (AC and AT). Among the strangest weapons, is a curved sabre with a plain hilt lacking quillons or pommel (G). This is almost certainly an artist attempt to show an 'infidel' sword based upon North African types. Straight blades without quillons (AL and AO) similarly reflect North African styles, which might also have been used by the Muslims of Sicily. A large curved dagger hangs at one man's belt (AL) while another warrior holds a single-edged dagger in his hand (M).